The Problem ▸
Law enforcement organizations' formal and informal cultures shape strategy choices, agency values and priorities, hiring and training decisions, and, ultimately, officer behavior and attitudes. Negative or toxic cultures can enhance and entrench biases that lead to disparate responses and fail to support the needs of officers and staff working within the agencies who deserve a positive and healthy work environment.
In many ways, policing culture reflects aspects of societal culture. Despite progress, racial biases and stereotypes continue influencing professional cultures, including policing. When these biases combine with policing approaches designed to increase enforcement and suppression rather than solving the underlying problems, they can lead to problematic responses and greater disparities.
In addition, the difficulties of a career in law enforcement take a toll on officers and their families. These same cultural problems can orient agencies away from providing a more supportive environment for wellness and make it more challenging for individual officers and staff to seek support when needed.
Communities and agencies can take action to mitigate these factors and the outcomes they can produce. There are exceptions to these harmful cultural traits, and many officers and agency leaders are working diligently to create change, but more must be done.
Report Sections ▸
Traditional views of police culture are often characterized by a preoccupation with the dangers of the job, the use of coercive authority, authoritarian organizational structures, and the uncertainty and ambiguity of the role. However, complexities in police culture cast doubt on a homogenous view and suggest that subcultural components need to be taken into account.[1] Surveys of officers in different types of law enforcement agencies demonstrate similarities and differences in officers’ cultural attitudes. Some features of police culture are more prevalent among law enforcement officers, but one unified police culture does not exist for all law enforcement agencies and all officers.[2] In addition, there can be a sharp divergence of attitudes and interests between what researchers call “street cops” and “management cops.”[3]
The training academy orients recruits to the traditions that characterize the police profession and particular law enforcement agencies. Institutional history and associated perspectives are passed down to recruits through formal and informal narrativization, including the telling and retelling of “war stories” from more seasoned officers. These approaches orient recruits to “think like a police officer” and help build collective understanding.[4] Considerable variation exists in law enforcement training in the United States. Training programs range from 650 to over 1,000 hours of basic training, plus an average of 508 hours in field training; discontinuity is typical between academy instruction and field training programs.[5] Traditional police training and certification, the requirements of which are set by state legislatures, emphasize the acquisition of “hard skills” (e.g., marksmanship, defensive tactics, and control)[6] while “soft skills” (e.g., interpersonal communication, problem-solving, rapport, and relationships) are either neglected or minimized.[7] Recruits are generally trained using authoritarian, paramilitary styles; a shift toward adult learning models, coupled with organizational buy-in and support, can help develop more psychologically skilled officers.[8]
Subcultures exist within law enforcement agencies, and officers exhibit varying degrees of alignment with and resistance to specific elements of traditional police cultural elements.[9] The perceptions of officers that routinely work together can be stronger than individual attitudes; groups of officers adapt to the challenges and strains of the job in similar ways.[10] When officers are aligned with traditional elements of police culture (e.g., officer cynicism, negative attitudes toward the public, focus on crime-fighting, aggressive police tactics), they are more likely to engage in problematic behavior, including higher levels of force during police-community encounters such as conducting traffic searches of drivers.[11] Further, officers who value aggressive patrol tactics and view their jobs as more dangerous use greater force, both in frequency and severity, and generate more complaints.[12] Officers with more favorable views toward order maintenance and more positive views toward top management tend to use higher levels of force.[13] Officers’ perceptions of what their supervisors expect and prioritize enforcement and problem-solving activities also impact their behavior and actions while on patrol.[14]
The warrior mindset or culture is based on military frameworks and is characterized by four key attributes: honor, duty, resolve, and willingness to engage in righteous violence.[15] This mindset can promote an adversarial policing style that encourages conflict and distance between the police and the public and reinforces tolerance for problematic policing behaviors.[16] [17] [18] [19] When police engage in warrior-type strategies (i.e., aggressively pursuing stopping cars, conducting pedestrian stops, running license plates)[20], it can negatively impact trust and legitimacy in communities of color.[21] [22] [23] The preoccupation with officer safety and the danger of police work fuels a warrior mentality and an us-against-them police culture; this shapes how officers behave on the job and can contribute to inequalities in treatment and impact.[24] This mentality is often reinforced by storytelling within law enforcement agencies and sharing narratives emphasizing violence and risk, officer harm, and death (sometimes referred to as survivability discourse).[25] On the other hand, the guardian mindset upholds democratic principles of policing, prioritizes the protection of all community members, builds public engagement, increases trust, and promotes collaboration. Essential attributes of the guardian mindset include respect for human dignity and rights, fairness, empathy, patience, inclusivity, and introspection.[26] [27] [28] Although the warrior and guardian are distinct mindsets, they can be seen as part of a spectrum that varies over time and situational context. Officers may embrace warrior and guardian approaches depending on their activities and circumstances.[29] [30] Law enforcement agencies are more likely to reward officers for warrior strategies than guardian ones.[31]
Unconscious biases can create implicit preferences that result in skewed treatment toward people of color and other historically marginalized groups.[32] For instance, officers may be more likely to conduct a vehicle search during a traffic stop if the driver’s race differs from theirs.[33] Stereotypes also exist that associate people of color, particularly Black individuals, with aggression, criminality, and weapon possession.[34] These stereotypes have implications for officer decision-making, such as in the decision to use force, including deadly force.[35]
Research on how to measure implicit bias has produced considerable debate. One of the most recognized, used, and critiqued tools for measuring implicit bias is the Implicit Association Test (IAT). When combined, the IAT and self-reported attitudinal measures may partially, but not entirely, explain certain officer behaviors.[36] However, using the test to identify individuals more or less likely to discriminate can yield high error rates since the evidence supporting the link between implicit bias as measured by the IAT and actual individual-level discriminatory behavior is weak.[37]
Training and external factors can reduce biased decision-making. Practice and repetition with use of force scenarios and perceived consequences for making errors can reduce racial disparities in shooting simulations.[38] Cognitive controls are essential for reducing reliance on heuristics for decision-making. For instance, one study found that White police officers experiencing sleep deprivation had lower levels of anti-Black bias, but anti-Black bias persisted independently of sleep deprivation.[39]
Implicit bias training can change implicit associations but has produced weak results and does not consistently change behavior. The types of interventions that are most effective at changing implicit associations focus on associating sets of concepts, using goals or motivations, and relying on cognitive resources. Still, even the most successful training has short-term effects, often lasting only a few days.[40] Implicit bias training in policing has similar limitations. Trainings designed to mitigate implicit biases can improve officer knowledge and understanding of the science of bias. However, these trainings have shown limited effects on attitudes about discriminatory or prejudiced behavior and no impact on reducing actual racial disparities in enforcement outcomes.[41] It is important to note that many law enforcement agencies rely on training such as implicit bias or fair and impartial policing training to reduce individual biases. Nevertheless, because of weak or non-existent relationships between implicit bias training and behavioral change, it may be more beneficial to focus on reducing the impact of implicit bias on behavior rather than reducing the bias itself.[42] Further, changing organizational and social environments may impact attitude change more than trying to change personal biases.[43] For example, organizational policies and procedures designed to increase equity will impact all kinds of bias, including implicit bias.
Procedurally just policing has been closely linked with improved perceptions of legitimacy and cooperation from the public.[44] The four principles of procedural justice include fairness of the process and outcomes, transparency and openness, voice and representation, and neutrality.[45] Recent research suggests that procedurally just models can improve officer behavior, enhance community engagement, and reduce arrests and uses of force.[46] Fairness and respect in policing, however, must be modeled from the inside out. Internally, procedurally just models of leadership and supervision (referred to as organizational justice) have positively impacted external police behaviors and trust in the public.[47]
In policing, the concept of “active bystandership”[48] empowers officers to intervene strategically in the actions of fellow officers, regardless of rank. This peer-to-peer intervention aims to prevent misconduct and other unlawful activities, mitigate harmful and potentially costly mistakes, promote a culture of officer health and wellness, and enhance community safety while nurturing rapport and relationships.[49] Officers trained in active bystandership report a greater likelihood to confront or intervene with their peers on policy violations or excessive use of force; officers also reported enhanced awareness or ability to recognize signs of distress in their coworkers.[50] More research on whether promoting active bystandership among officers translates into behavior change by officers in the field is needed.
Although law enforcement agencies may prohibit racist discourse through policy and law, it may continue to exist within organizational subgroups. Racist humor dehumanizes people and fosters tolerance of racism, discrimination, and abuse. Referred to by some as “racist blue humor,” it may be intended as “joking,” but it degrades racial, ethnic, and other minorities.[51]
The impact of higher education on individual officer behavior is mixed, although there appears to be more agreement on two key points. First, research suggests that higher education is associated with less authoritarian attitudes and greater cognitive flexibility.[52] The effects of college education on orientation toward authoritarianism are divided along gender and racial lines, as well as the amount of college education (e.g., freshman versus senior students).[53] Some research has shown that higher education among police officers reduces use of force but does not appear to alter arrest and search activity.[54] Research has also shown that college-educated officers receive fewer public complaints than officers with a high school diploma.[55]
Law enforcement officers engage in challenging work with multiple stressors that put them at risk for physical and psychological harm.[56] The stress and trauma faced on the job can lead to maladaptive coping mechanisms, compassion fatigue, post-traumatic stress disorder, depression, burnout, and adverse health outcomes, all of which impact job performance.[57] Historically, there has been a stigma in law enforcement associated with using mental health and social support services, which may limit its ability to effect improvements in officer health.[58]
Police work is challenging and stressful.[59] Negative aspects of the job can impact physical and psychological wellbeing and work performance and contribute to maladaptive coping patterns and burnout.[60] At home, this work stress translates to family stress, such as unsatisfactory marriages, spending time away, being uninvolved, and negativity or anger.[61] Some researchers suggest that institutions should extend employee assistance and counseling programs to family members, enhance positive coping strategies for officers, and incorporate information on the work-family interface during orientation and training. Family support groups can also help mitigate isolation. Offering newly hired officers family member orientations may help prepare family members for the realities of policing and set more realistic expectations of police work.[62] Supporting law enforcement families can help buffer the effects of toxic stress on individual officers.[63]
Wellness interventions are relatively new, and to date, there is weak evidence of their impact on stress-related outcomes.[64] Advocates suggest that law organizations should create a culture of wellness rather than offering specific interventions, such as employee assistance programs or critical incident stress debriefing of wellness. Key components associated with a wellness culture include transformational leadership, employee engagement, and organizational justice.[65]
Communities have grown increasingly critical of the police over recent years. Black youth and adults voice the lowest levels of trust and confidence in the police[66], and in 2020 the gap in confidence between White and Black adults was the largest ever recorded.[67] There has been broad recognition that not all racial and ethnic groups are treated fairly or equally.[68] There has also been public support for critical reforms in policing. For instance, over 70% of respondents support banning chokeholds, prohibiting racial profiling, mandating body-worn cameras, de-escalation training, enforcing duty to intervene policies, creating a national registry of misconduct, training to counter implicit bias, and mandating that police shootings be investigated by an independent authority.[69] Despite these calls for reform, the most recent evidence suggests that calls to defund the police have little public support. Data from 2021 indicate that 47% of people would support increasing police funding; only 15% would support decreasing funding.[70]
Assess Organizational Culture and Include Community Perspective
The organizational and operational culture of law enforcement agencies must be assessed, and community perspectives should be incorporated, redefining what the culture should be for their community. This should be done through a structured review of agency goals, data and outcomes, officer and leadership perspectives, and organizational climate.
Promote a Culture of Community Safety and Service
Law enforcement agencies should move away from an aggressive, control-oriented model of policing and towards a culture of community safety and service. This will require a review of community needs and the goals, policies, strategies, and performance metrics within each agency to ensure alignment with a safety and service model.
Training and Certification Standards Should Support a Culture of Safety and Service
State training and certification requirements for new and current officers (including in-service training and continuing education) should be re-examined to ensure an emphasis on community safety and a spirit of service.
Conduct Research on Police Culture and Strategies to Change Culture
Research must be conducted on police culture, how it influences operations and outcomes, and how it can be changed. This research should identify all the elements of police culture and determine how to prioritize their implementation.
Research the Role of Implicit and Explicit Bias in Decision-Making
Research regarding implicit and explicit biases that exist in policing should (1) measure officer and leadership biases, (2) understand the role it plays in decision-making, and (3) determine how to mitigate its influence on policing outcomes, including police legitimacy.
Improve Legitimacy Through Procedural Justice
Improve police legitimacy within communities by implementing procedural justice training and other practices emphasizing fairness and respectfulness principles.
Expand Tuition Reimbursement Programs
College education has been shown to reduce use of force, expanding college reimbursement programs to help hire the best officers and further their educational and promotional advancement.
Promote a Culture of Wellness for Officers
Comprehensive policies and practices should be adopted to promote a culture of officer wellness, including mandatory mental health days and non-punitive assessments. Assessments should promote officers’ physical, mental, and emotional health and wellness, which is an essential component of fair and equitable policing.
Create a Culture of Active Bystandership
A culture that encourages early intervention and active bystandership and protects them against retaliation must be created. This will require strong anti-retaliation practices beyond the current legal minimum duty to intervene rules, regulations and laws, and include specific training on active bystandership that both improve police-community relations and ensures the health and safety of officers.
Support Officer Families
Police officers and their families must be supported by policies that meet inherent policing challenges, such as shift work and risks, and help establish and maintain healthy family relationships.
Further Research ▸
Explore Outcomes Associated with Guardian and Warrior Mindsets.
Examine whether the salience of either guardian or warrior mindset explains individual policing behaviors and outcomes.
Determine How to Change Cultures.
Develop an understanding of police cultures, how to influence changes in culture, and the impacts of various cultures and cultural elements on police operations and outcomes.
Develop and Evaluate Strategies to Reduce Racial Biases.
Find effective tools or mechanisms to identify and reduce racial and other biases. Research on addressing implicit bias is extremely limited, and despite best efforts to study this topic, it is unclear (1) if implicit bias matters, or to what extent, in producing racially disproportionate outcomes, and (2) what can be done to address these biases and reduce their impact on policing outcomes.
Disentangle the Impact of Individual Versus Subcultures.
Although scholars have argued that police subcultures fuel racialized outcomes irrespective of individual officer prejudices or proclivities, there is limited empirical evidence regarding the type of subcultures that influence outcomes.
Identify the Cultural Elements that Produce Racial Disparities in Policing Outcomes.
Identify the specific elements of police organizational cultures and subcultures that generate and enable the racial disparities found in policing outcomes.
Understand the Impact of the Warrior Mindset and Survivability Discourse.
The warrior mindset emphasizes surviving at all costs in the face of frequent and ongoing life-threatening struggles.[71] Insufficient research exists to understand if the “survivability discourse” in policing has had, or does have, a positive effect on officer safety or if such discourse could be moderated without sacrificing safety.
Examine the Impact of Stress, Trauma, and Racial Disparities.
Little is known about the link between the stress and trauma to which law enforcement officers are exposed, their performance, and the impact on policing outcomes, including racial disparities. Research is needed to understand this connection and to reduce the impact of stress and trauma on outcomes.
Evaluate Wellness Programs.
Rigorous evaluations of wellness programs and policies and their impact on officer health and performance are needed. Current evidence is limited by weak evaluation design. Such research would help develop evidence-based strategies for ensuring officer health and wellness.
Citations ▸
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