Report at a Glance ▸

Recommendations Areas:

Area: Addressing Racial Disparities in Traffic Stops

  • What We Know
    • Traffic Stops are Common and Most are Carried Out Respectfully
    • Roadways are More Dangerous for People of Color
    • Traffic Stops Can Effectively Reduce Crime and Improve Roadway Safety
    • Traffic Stops Can be Dangerous, but Most of the Danger Comes from Traffic-Related Fatalities
    • There are Alternatives to Traditional Traffic Enforcement
    • Assessing Bias and Disparity in Traffic Stop Activity is Challenging
  • Council Recommendations
    • Reduce Reliance on Traffic Stops
    • Abolish Performance Incentives and Quotas Based on the Volume of Traffic Stops
    • Change Laws and Policies regarding the Use of Pretextual (Investigative) Stops
    • Explore and Evaluate Alternatives to Traditional Traffic Enforcement and Roadway Safety Approaches
    • Implement Diverse Approaches to Reduce Traffic Injuries and Fatalities
    • Officers Should Receive Training on Using Procedural Justice Principles in Traffic Stops and Require Signed Consent for Vehicle Searches
    • Monitor Traffic Stop Activity for Bias and Disparate Impact
    • Collect and Disseminate Traffic Stop Data at the Agency and State Levels and Disseminate to the Public
    • Use Traffic Stop Data to Improve Intervention Systems
  • Citations

 

Area: Body-Worn Cameras

  • What We Know
    • Body-Worn Cameras Have been Rapidly Adopted By Law Enforcement
    • Utilization of Body-Worn Cameras Have Mixed Impacts
    • The Impact of Body-Worn Cameras on Reducing Racial Disparities in Policing Outcomes is Not Yet Known
    • Issues of Transparency and Public release of Body-Worn Camera Videos Have Not Been Clearly Resolved
    • Communities Are generally Supportive of the Adoption of Body-Worn Cameras Have Nuanced Views of Their Impact
    • Officers Appear to Develop More Positive Views of Body-Worn Cameras Over Time
    • Careful Planning and Preparation for Body-Worn Camera Utilization are Critical to Successful Implementation and Buy-In for Internal and External Stakeholders
  • Council Recommendations
    • Use Body-Worn Camera and Conduct Research on Disparate Impact of Their Use and Outcomes
    • Engage Community in Development of Body-Worn Camera Policies
    • Use Body-Worn Camera Videos for Investigations of Community Complaints and Officer Training
    • Improve Technical Solutions to Challenges Created by Body-Worn Cameras
  • Citations

 

Area: Community-Based Violence Prevention

  • What We Know
    • Crime Can be Reduced by Investment in Community Vitality and Wellbeing
    • Youth Engagement Strategies Can Reduce Youth Crime
    • Programs Need to be Sensitive to Community Context
    • Although Many Programs Have Succeeded, Success Seems Contingent on Local Implementation and Evaluation Methods
    • The Effectiveness of Violence Interruption Programs Varies
    • Law Enforcement Cannot be Solely Responsible for Public Safety
    • Evidence for Police and Community-Led Violence Reduction Strategies
  • Council Recommendations
    • Improve Community-Driven Violence Prevention Programs
    • Violence Prevention Strategies Must Include Resources and Services
    • Support Community Programs and Research Their Effectiveness
  • Citations

 

Area: Culture of Policing

  • What We Know
    • Police Culture Varies Across and Within Agencies – No Single Culture Exists
    • Law Enforcement Training is a Cultural Socialization Gateway
    • Individual and Group Perceptions of Culture Influence Officer Behaviors and Outcomes
    • A Warrior Mindset can Negatively Impact Police-Community Relations; a “Guardian Mindset” can positively impact police-community relations
    • Implicit (unconscious) Bias Exists in all Individuals and has Implications for Policing
    • Measuring Implicit Bias is Challenging, and Evidence Linking Implicit Bias and Discriminatory Behavior is Limited
    • Strategies can Improve Cognitive Controls that Reduce Bias in Decision-Making
    • Implicit Bias Training can Improve Awareness of Biases but has not been shown to Change Behaviors
    • Procedurally just Policing can Reduce Police Violence and Improve the Respectful Treatment of Community members
    • Active Bystandership Training may help to Positively Impact Policing Culture and Organizations
    • Racist Humor can Dehumanize and Foster Tolerance of Racism, Discrimination, and Abuse
    • The Impact of Higher Education on Police Behavior is Mixed
    • Stress and Trauma in Policing are Widespread and Harmful
    • Stress and Trauma has Spillover Effects on Partners and Families
    • There is Limited Evidence for the Effectiveness of Specific Wellness Interventions
    • Public Opinion Supports Police Reform
  • Council Recommendations
    • Assess Organizational Culture and Include Community Perspective
    • Promote a Culture of Community Safety and Service
    • Training and Certification Standards should Support a Culture of Safety and Service
    • Conduct Research on Police Culture and Strategies to Change Culture
    • Research the Role of Implicit and Explicit Bias in Decision-Making
    • Improve Legitimacy through Procedural Justice
    • Expand Tuition Reimbursement Programs
    • Promote a Culture of Wellness for Officers
    • Create a Culture of Active Bystandership
    • Support Officer Families
  • Citations

 

Area: Data Collection, Analysis and Reporting

  • What We Know
    • Data Transparency is a Growing Focus for The Government
    • There is an Increasing Demand for Improved, Consistent, and Transparent Data Collection
    • Data Standardization is Critical for Understanding Local and National Trends and Changes Over Time
    • Police Open Data Efforts Have Greatly Contributed to the Advancement of Research and Improvement of Practices
    • Data is Likely to End Up in the Public View
    • Transparency can Benefit Police-Community Relations
  • Council Recommendations
    • Develop a Data Collection, Analysis, and Dissemination Plan
    • Maximize the Value of Data by Ensuring its Consistency
    • Design and Implement Data Collection Systems and Processes
    • Issue Annual Reports on Activities and Impacts
    • Participate in Federal Data Collection Efforts
  • Citations

 

Area: Fines and Fees

  • What We Know
    • Fines and Fees are Routinely Imposed on People Throughout the Criminal Justice System
    • Fines and Fees have a Racially Disproportionate Impact
    • Using Traffic Enforcement Fines to Generate Revenue creates Racial Disparities
    • Fines and Fees May Impair Public Safety and Contribute to Recidivism, Especially Among those who are Heavily Involved in the Criminal Justice System or Lack Legitimate means to Pay Court-Imposed Debts
    • Debt-Based License Suspension has an Inconsistent Deterrent Effect on Compliance and Leads to Additional Adverse Outcomes
    • Jurisdictions Employ a Variety of Strategies to Mitigate or Provide Alternatives to Fines and Fees
  • Council Recommendations
    • Do Not Use Law Enforcement To Collect Fines and Fees
    • Decouple Law Enforcement Agency Budgets from Fines
    • Do Not Use Law Enforcement to Serve Warrants for Unpaid Fines and Fees
    • Reduce the Harm of Fines and Fees
    • Implement Strategies to Reduce Non-Payment of Fines and Fees
  • Citations

 

Area: Mental Health and Substance Abuse

  • What We Know
    • People with Substance use Disorders are Over-Represented in the Criminal Justice System
    • Evidence Indicates Considerable Cooccurrence of Mental Illness and Substance use Disorders
    • A Small Percentage of Law Enforcement Calls for Service Involve PWPMI
    • No Consensus Exists on Whether Crisis Responses Should be Handled Primarily by Law Enforcement or Independent Health Services
    • Considerable Challenges Exist in Effectively Responding to Persons with Mental Health and Substance use Disorders
    • Crisis Response Programs are Limited by Resource Availability
    • Mobile Crisis Teams face Operational Challenges
    • Co-Responder Teams Show Promise in Addressing Calls Involving PWPMI
    • Crisis Intervention Training (CIT) May Improve Police Response, but more Research is Needed
    • Crisis Response Programs can help Standardize Officer Decision-Making and Reduce Disparities
    • Crisis Response Programs can Benefit People with Mental Health Problems, but Substance use Presents an Added Challenge
    • Diversion Programs, Especially Post-Arrest Diversion, Can Benefit Individuals with Substance use Disorders
    • Diverting People with Substance use Disorders away From the Criminal Justice System can Produce Cost Savings, but the Cost of Community-Based Treatment Remains a Challenge
    • Little is Known About Programs Designed to Assist People Experiencing Homelessness
  • Council Recommendations
    • Institute a Public Health Approach to Substance use Disorders
    • Remove Barriers to Treatment
    • Research, Design, and Implement Alternatives to Arrest
    • Implement and Evaluate Non-Police Crisis Response Teams and Co-Responder Programs
    • Improve Responses to People Experiencing Homelessness
    • Develop Alternate Strategies for Addressing Nuisance Offenses
    • Ensure Officer Training to Address Suds, Mental Health Crises, and People with Disabilities
  • Citations

 

Area: Pedestrian Stops

  • What We Know
    • Evidence Suggests that Police Stop Individuals of Different Racial Groups at Disparate Rates
    • Evidence of the Effectiveness of Pedestrian Stops for Crime Control is Limited
    • Pedestrian Stops Are Not Always Conducted According to the Law
    • Pedestrian Stops Undermine Perceptions of Police Legitimacy
    • Procedural Justice May Help Increase Perceptions of Legitimacy during Pedestrian Stops
  • Council Recommendations
    • Limit Pedestrian Stops
    • Improve Training on Pedestrian Stops
    • Implement Mandatory Data Collection for Pedestrian Stops
    • Include Community Input in Establishing Strategies for Pedestrian Stops
    • Develop and Implement Pedestrian Stop Monitoring and Accountability Strategies
    • Communicate Pedestrian Stop Strategies, Policies, and Data to the Community
  • Citations

 

Area: Police Training

  • What We Know
    • Basic Training Averages 833 Hours or Roughly 21 Weeks
    • Most Instructional Time is Spent on Firearm Skills, Defensive Tactics, and Patrol Procedures
    • Enhanced Psychological and Cognitive Skills Training May Be Necessary
    • Instructor backgrounds, Experience, and Education Vary
    • Training Academies are Not Always operated by Law Enforcement
    • Field Training Officers (FTOs) Have a Lasting Impact on New Officers
    • Evidence on the Effectiveness of Specific Types of Training is Limited, and Effectiveness Varies
    • Virtual Reality (VR) and Simulation Training Modalities May Show Promise
  • Council Recommendations
    • Develop and Deliver Training that Supports Organizational and Culture Goals
    • Review Roles of Field Training Officers (FTOs)
    • Evaluate Impact of training on Officer Behavior
  • Citations

 

Area: Policing in Schools

  • What We Know
    • Despite Declines in Crime and Victimization in Schools over the Past Decade, Security Measures, Including the Presence of Law Enforcement, have Increased Over Time
    • There is Currently Limited Evidence that SROS Reduce Crime or Improve School Safety
    • Evidence Indicates that SROS do not Appear to Improve Student Perceptions of Safety
    • To the Extent that SROS May Improve Perceptions of the Police, the Effect is Mixed and Varies by Race
    • SRO Involvement in Discipline May Reflect the School’s Existing Disciplinary Practices
    • The Presence of SROS has been Associated with Greater Discipline, Which Research has Found to Disproportionately Affect Black Students who are of Lower Socioeconomic Status and have Disabilities
    • Placing Law Enforcement Officers inside Schools may Improve Safety but can have Unintended Impacts on Racial Disparities
    • Alternative Approaches may Address Problematic Behaviors without Criminal Justice Involvement
  • Council Recommendations
    • Articulate the Role of School-Based Officers
    • Research and Minimize the Potential for Negative Impact of School-Based Law Enforcement
    • Develop, Implement, and Evaluate Alternatives to School-Based Law Enforcement
  • Citations