Report at a Glance ▸
Recommendations Areas:
Area: Addressing Racial Disparities in Traffic Stops
- What We Know
- Traffic Stops are Common and Most are Carried Out Respectfully
- Roadways are More Dangerous for People of Color
- Traffic Stops Can Effectively Reduce Crime and Improve Roadway Safety
- Traffic Stops Can be Dangerous, but Most of the Danger Comes from Traffic-Related Fatalities
- There are Alternatives to Traditional Traffic Enforcement
- Assessing Bias and Disparity in Traffic Stop Activity is Challenging
- Council Recommendations
- Reduce Reliance on Traffic Stops
- Abolish Performance Incentives and Quotas Based on the Volume of Traffic Stops
- Change Laws and Policies regarding the Use of Pretextual (Investigative) Stops
- Explore and Evaluate Alternatives to Traditional Traffic Enforcement and Roadway Safety Approaches
- Implement Diverse Approaches to Reduce Traffic Injuries and Fatalities
- Officers Should Receive Training on Using Procedural Justice Principles in Traffic Stops and Require Signed Consent for Vehicle Searches
- Monitor Traffic Stop Activity for Bias and Disparate Impact
- Collect and Disseminate Traffic Stop Data at the Agency and State Levels and Disseminate to the Public
- Use Traffic Stop Data to Improve Intervention Systems
- Citations
Area: Body-Worn Cameras
- What We Know
- Body-Worn Cameras Have been Rapidly Adopted By Law Enforcement
- Utilization of Body-Worn Cameras Have Mixed Impacts
- The Impact of Body-Worn Cameras on Reducing Racial Disparities in Policing Outcomes is Not Yet Known
- Issues of Transparency and Public release of Body-Worn Camera Videos Have Not Been Clearly Resolved
- Communities Are generally Supportive of the Adoption of Body-Worn Cameras Have Nuanced Views of Their Impact
- Officers Appear to Develop More Positive Views of Body-Worn Cameras Over Time
- Careful Planning and Preparation for Body-Worn Camera Utilization are Critical to Successful Implementation and Buy-In for Internal and External Stakeholders
- Council Recommendations
- Use Body-Worn Camera and Conduct Research on Disparate Impact of Their Use and Outcomes
- Engage Community in Development of Body-Worn Camera Policies
- Use Body-Worn Camera Videos for Investigations of Community Complaints and Officer Training
- Improve Technical Solutions to Challenges Created by Body-Worn Cameras
- Citations
Area: Community-Based Violence Prevention
- What We Know
- Crime Can be Reduced by Investment in Community Vitality and Wellbeing
- Youth Engagement Strategies Can Reduce Youth Crime
- Programs Need to be Sensitive to Community Context
- Although Many Programs Have Succeeded, Success Seems Contingent on Local Implementation and Evaluation Methods
- The Effectiveness of Violence Interruption Programs Varies
- Law Enforcement Cannot be Solely Responsible for Public Safety
- Evidence for Police and Community-Led Violence Reduction Strategies
- Council Recommendations
- Improve Community-Driven Violence Prevention Programs
- Violence Prevention Strategies Must Include Resources and Services
- Support Community Programs and Research Their Effectiveness
- Citations
Area: Culture of Policing
- What We Know
- Police Culture Varies Across and Within Agencies – No Single Culture Exists
- Law Enforcement Training is a Cultural Socialization Gateway
- Individual and Group Perceptions of Culture Influence Officer Behaviors and Outcomes
- A Warrior Mindset can Negatively Impact Police-Community Relations; a “Guardian Mindset” can positively impact police-community relations
- Implicit (unconscious) Bias Exists in all Individuals and has Implications for Policing
- Measuring Implicit Bias is Challenging, and Evidence Linking Implicit Bias and Discriminatory Behavior is Limited
- Strategies can Improve Cognitive Controls that Reduce Bias in Decision-Making
- Implicit Bias Training can Improve Awareness of Biases but has not been shown to Change Behaviors
- Procedurally just Policing can Reduce Police Violence and Improve the Respectful Treatment of Community members
- Active Bystandership Training may help to Positively Impact Policing Culture and Organizations
- Racist Humor can Dehumanize and Foster Tolerance of Racism, Discrimination, and Abuse
- The Impact of Higher Education on Police Behavior is Mixed
- Stress and Trauma in Policing are Widespread and Harmful
- Stress and Trauma has Spillover Effects on Partners and Families
- There is Limited Evidence for the Effectiveness of Specific Wellness Interventions
- Public Opinion Supports Police Reform
- Council Recommendations
- Assess Organizational Culture and Include Community Perspective
- Promote a Culture of Community Safety and Service
- Training and Certification Standards should Support a Culture of Safety and Service
- Conduct Research on Police Culture and Strategies to Change Culture
- Research the Role of Implicit and Explicit Bias in Decision-Making
- Improve Legitimacy through Procedural Justice
- Expand Tuition Reimbursement Programs
- Promote a Culture of Wellness for Officers
- Create a Culture of Active Bystandership
- Support Officer Families
- Citations
Area: Data Collection, Analysis and Reporting
- What We Know
- Data Transparency is a Growing Focus for The Government
- There is an Increasing Demand for Improved, Consistent, and Transparent Data Collection
- Data Standardization is Critical for Understanding Local and National Trends and Changes Over Time
- Police Open Data Efforts Have Greatly Contributed to the Advancement of Research and Improvement of Practices
- Data is Likely to End Up in the Public View
- Transparency can Benefit Police-Community Relations
- Council Recommendations
- Develop a Data Collection, Analysis, and Dissemination Plan
- Maximize the Value of Data by Ensuring its Consistency
- Design and Implement Data Collection Systems and Processes
- Issue Annual Reports on Activities and Impacts
- Participate in Federal Data Collection Efforts
- Citations
Area: Fines and Fees
- What We Know
- Fines and Fees are Routinely Imposed on People Throughout the Criminal Justice System
- Fines and Fees have a Racially Disproportionate Impact
- Using Traffic Enforcement Fines to Generate Revenue creates Racial Disparities
- Fines and Fees May Impair Public Safety and Contribute to Recidivism, Especially Among those who are Heavily Involved in the Criminal Justice System or Lack Legitimate means to Pay Court-Imposed Debts
- Debt-Based License Suspension has an Inconsistent Deterrent Effect on Compliance and Leads to Additional Adverse Outcomes
- Jurisdictions Employ a Variety of Strategies to Mitigate or Provide Alternatives to Fines and Fees
- Council Recommendations
- Do Not Use Law Enforcement To Collect Fines and Fees
- Decouple Law Enforcement Agency Budgets from Fines
- Do Not Use Law Enforcement to Serve Warrants for Unpaid Fines and Fees
- Reduce the Harm of Fines and Fees
- Implement Strategies to Reduce Non-Payment of Fines and Fees
- Citations
Area: Mental Health and Substance Abuse
- What We Know
- People with Substance use Disorders are Over-Represented in the Criminal Justice System
- Evidence Indicates Considerable Cooccurrence of Mental Illness and Substance use Disorders
- A Small Percentage of Law Enforcement Calls for Service Involve PWPMI
- No Consensus Exists on Whether Crisis Responses Should be Handled Primarily by Law Enforcement or Independent Health Services
- Considerable Challenges Exist in Effectively Responding to Persons with Mental Health and Substance use Disorders
- Crisis Response Programs are Limited by Resource Availability
- Mobile Crisis Teams face Operational Challenges
- Co-Responder Teams Show Promise in Addressing Calls Involving PWPMI
- Crisis Intervention Training (CIT) May Improve Police Response, but more Research is Needed
- Crisis Response Programs can help Standardize Officer Decision-Making and Reduce Disparities
- Crisis Response Programs can Benefit People with Mental Health Problems, but Substance use Presents an Added Challenge
- Diversion Programs, Especially Post-Arrest Diversion, Can Benefit Individuals with Substance use Disorders
- Diverting People with Substance use Disorders away From the Criminal Justice System can Produce Cost Savings, but the Cost of Community-Based Treatment Remains a Challenge
- Little is Known About Programs Designed to Assist People Experiencing Homelessness
- Council Recommendations
- Institute a Public Health Approach to Substance use Disorders
- Remove Barriers to Treatment
- Research, Design, and Implement Alternatives to Arrest
- Implement and Evaluate Non-Police Crisis Response Teams and Co-Responder Programs
- Improve Responses to People Experiencing Homelessness
- Develop Alternate Strategies for Addressing Nuisance Offenses
- Ensure Officer Training to Address Suds, Mental Health Crises, and People with Disabilities
- Citations
Area: Pedestrian Stops
- What We Know
- Evidence Suggests that Police Stop Individuals of Different Racial Groups at Disparate Rates
- Evidence of the Effectiveness of Pedestrian Stops for Crime Control is Limited
- Pedestrian Stops Are Not Always Conducted According to the Law
- Pedestrian Stops Undermine Perceptions of Police Legitimacy
- Procedural Justice May Help Increase Perceptions of Legitimacy during Pedestrian Stops
- Council Recommendations
- Limit Pedestrian Stops
- Improve Training on Pedestrian Stops
- Implement Mandatory Data Collection for Pedestrian Stops
- Include Community Input in Establishing Strategies for Pedestrian Stops
- Develop and Implement Pedestrian Stop Monitoring and Accountability Strategies
- Communicate Pedestrian Stop Strategies, Policies, and Data to the Community
- Citations
Area: Police Training
- What We Know
- Basic Training Averages 833 Hours or Roughly 21 Weeks
- Most Instructional Time is Spent on Firearm Skills, Defensive Tactics, and Patrol Procedures
- Enhanced Psychological and Cognitive Skills Training May Be Necessary
- Instructor backgrounds, Experience, and Education Vary
- Training Academies are Not Always operated by Law Enforcement
- Field Training Officers (FTOs) Have a Lasting Impact on New Officers
- Evidence on the Effectiveness of Specific Types of Training is Limited, and Effectiveness Varies
- Virtual Reality (VR) and Simulation Training Modalities May Show Promise
- Council Recommendations
- Develop and Deliver Training that Supports Organizational and Culture Goals
- Review Roles of Field Training Officers (FTOs)
- Evaluate Impact of training on Officer Behavior
- Citations
Area: Policing in Schools
- What We Know
- Despite Declines in Crime and Victimization in Schools over the Past Decade, Security Measures, Including the Presence of Law Enforcement, have Increased Over Time
- There is Currently Limited Evidence that SROS Reduce Crime or Improve School Safety
- Evidence Indicates that SROS do not Appear to Improve Student Perceptions of Safety
- To the Extent that SROS May Improve Perceptions of the Police, the Effect is Mixed and Varies by Race
- SRO Involvement in Discipline May Reflect the School’s Existing Disciplinary Practices
- The Presence of SROS has been Associated with Greater Discipline, Which Research has Found to Disproportionately Affect Black Students who are of Lower Socioeconomic Status and have Disabilities
- Placing Law Enforcement Officers inside Schools may Improve Safety but can have Unintended Impacts on Racial Disparities
- Alternative Approaches may Address Problematic Behaviors without Criminal Justice Involvement
- Council Recommendations
- Articulate the Role of School-Based Officers
- Research and Minimize the Potential for Negative Impact of School-Based Law Enforcement
- Develop, Implement, and Evaluate Alternatives to School-Based Law Enforcement
- Citations