The Problem ▸
Basic (academy) and in-service (on-the-job) training is designed to shape how officers do their job, develop new skills and knowledge, and learn how policies and procedures should be implemented. Police training is relatively short in duration, may be limited, and often focuses on physical and tactical policing responses and procedures. Research studies show that training in other areas, such as prioritizing guardian philosophies, problem-solving, and understanding and respecting cultural differences, is very limited. Because of this, officers are often underprepared to engage with the complex challenges involving individuals who are economically and/or socially disenfranchised. In addition to content deficiencies, officer training may be further weakened by the quality and methods of training delivery.
Report Sections ▸
Although almost all agencies have minimum education requirements for new officers, the amount of education prior to hiring tends to be low. The most recent nationwide data reveals that 84% of municipal police agencies[1] and 89% of sheriffs’ offices[2] require a high school diploma and less than 1% require a 4-year college degree.[3],[4] Most but not all law enforcement agencies require field training in addition to basic classroom training. However, even when field training is mandatory, this requirement may not apply to all recruits.[5] Despite these minimum requirements, approximately 1/3 of police officers have 4-year college degrees.[6]
Hundreds of hours are spent on traditional law enforcement topics such as firearms, defensive tactics, and use of force procedures. Far fewer hours are spent on non-traditional “guardian-style” topics such as diversity, de-escalation, communication, crisis intervention, and stress management.[7],[8] About 75% of academies provide instruction on mediation and conflict management (average length of instruction 13 hours) and problem-solving (average length of instruction 16 hours).[9] Nearly 100% reported providing training on ethics and integrity. Less than half reported providing training on restraints such as the carotid hold.[10] Different types of training and a re-allocation of hours or re-prioritization of training hours may be necessary to move American policing towards more of a “guardian” orientation as opposed to “warrior” orientation, and to address other important topics such as self-improvement. [11]
Psychological skills training, using an adult learning model that includes the integration of cognitive, emotional, social, and moral skills development may improve performance, including police-community relations, but it is not sufficient without cultural support within the agency.[12] Police academies can facilitate the development of critical thinking skills, conscientiousness, adaptability, emotional regulation and intelligence, stress tolerance, performance techniques, social competence, teamwork, assertiveness and persuasiveness, integrity, ethics, and spirituality (many of which are also psychological screening factors in some states). In addition to being emphasized in the academy, these skills should be reinforced in field training. Methods to enhance macro-cognitive skill development include sensemaking, naturalistic decision-making, and the ShadowBox methods of cognitive skills training.[13]
Forty-two percent of academies required a high-school diploma or equivalent for full-time instructors; 25% had no formal education requirement for instructors; 25% require a 2-year degree or higher for instructors. On average, about four years of policing experience is required to be a full-time instructor.[14] Despite these requirements, it is unclear if and how these qualifications impact instruction quality and learning outcomes.
In 2018, nearly half of the basic training academies were operated by colleges or technical schools. However, two-thirds of recruits graduate from law enforcement-operated academies. In the Midwest, two-thirds of the academies are operated by non-law enforcement entities,[15] often serving multiple and smaller law enforcement agencies.
FTOs are responsible for reinforcing academy training, teaching competencies beyond those taught in the academy, and developing new officer values.[16] Because recruit training faces challenges with incorporating both book knowledge and applied knowledge, field training is crucial in providing officers with social learning that instills intangible value-based decision-making during unpredictable incidents in complex situations. FTOs can teach both positive and negative behaviors and thinking that has lasting impacts on officers. Field-training processes may negatively impact a new officer’s attitudes toward community policing and problem-solving.[17] Further, complaints against new officers is at least partially attributable to their FTO.[18]
- Officers who received crisis-intervention training were more likely to de-escalate, use less physical force, and perceive physical force as less effective compared to nonphysical actions during scenario-based vignettes.[19],[20] These officers also felt better prepared to interact with people with perceived mental illness.[21]
- There was significant variation and little standardization across de-escalation programs, but some evidence suggests the programs generated moderate attitudinal, perceptual, and behavioral benefits.[22] For instance, officers reported more positive attitudes towards compromise, prioritizing safety for everyone involved, and knowing when to disengage.[23]
- Social-interaction training can improve officer attitudes regarding procedurally just communication but does not alter use-of-force behaviors, and officers are skeptical that it enhances their skillset.[24]
- Officers who receive procedural justice training report more positive perceptions of public engagement, more positive attitudes toward officer respect and empathy, and fewer complaints and use-of-force instances.[25]
- Educating officers about disproportionate contact with minority youth improves officer knowledge, attitudes, and understanding regarding effective interaction strategies.[26]
- Training on community-oriented or problem-oriented policing (COP) has little impact on officer perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors.[27] However, implementation of COP has been demonstrated to improve a community’s satisfaction in and trust of the police, as well as reducing community perceptions of disorder.[28]
- Trainings designed to reduce implicit biases can improve officer knowledge and understanding on the science of bias; however, it has limited effects on attitudes about discriminatory or prejudiced behavior and no impact on reducing actual disparities in enforcement outcomes.[29]
VR training allows for greater perspective-taking and has been used in various domains to build empathy in interactions including medicine[30], psychology[31], and education[32]. Virtual scenarios (designed to be more similar to live interactions) can facilitate enhanced presence in simulated interactions,[33] and therefore may be a more effective way of identifying racial bias and increase prosocial behavior with longer-term impacts on police-community interactions and prejudice reduction.[34] Simulation (aka scenario-based) training involves realistic scenarios, including use of equipment on the job and equipment-based feedback.[35] As in VR training, simulation-based training has been demonstrated to be superior to more basic training formats (e.g., problem-solving approaches) especially for complex tasks, in fields such as aviation[36], management[37], and medicine[38]. There is some research showing the success of VR training in policing[39].
Develop and Deliver Training That Supports Organizational and Cultural Goals
Training curricula that support law enforcement agency organizational and cultural goals and values, as defined by agency leadership and the community, should be developed and delivered. Trainers and the curriculum should be certified by the International Association of Directors of Law Enforcement Standards and Training (IADLEST) National Certification Program (NCP). Training curricula that support law enforcement agency organizational and cultural goals and values, as defined by agency leadership and the community, should be developed and delivered. Trainers and the curriculum should be certified by the International Association of Directors of Law Enforcement Standards and Training (IADLEST) National Certification Program (NCP) or some other nationally recognized certification program.
Review Roles of Field Training Officers (FTOs)
Field training officer (FTO) training, selection, assignment, and impact should be reviewed to ensure alignment with organizational values and culture. Differences between academy training and guidance provided by FTOs should be analyzed, including observational analysis and surveys of attitudinal and other possible changes before and after the academy, and after field training. Officers with founded complaints, misconduct, or multiple uses of excessive force on their record should not be selected as FTOs. The Police Training Officer (PTO) model, which emphasizes community problem-solving and other approaches, should be considered, tested, and evaluated.
Evaluate Impact of Training on Officer Behavior
The impact of all training on policing outcomes should be evaluated, including for possible disparate impact.
Incorporating Elements of Contemporary Policing in Training
Essential elements of contemporary policing must be incorporated in all academies, in-service, and field training. These elements include procedural justice, de-escalation, active bystandership, respect for all persons, sanctity of life, value of diversity, fair and impartial policing, and interpersonal and communication skills. To ensure that trainees understand and can implement these elements, the time spent on these elements (including refresher work and skill-based proficiency assessments) should be compared to time spent on training that may prioritize more aggressive law enforcement tactics.
Further Research ▸
The impacts of training should be further studied. Agencies are experimenting with both training content and training modalities. Despite this experimentation, there is little known about the impact of these dimensions. Training programs should specify both proximal and distal outcomes in areas such as officer attitudes, officer behaviors, organizational outcomes, and community perceptions and safety.
The extent, nature, and quality of in-service training of officers who are already on the job should be further studied. This training is generally focused on legal changes and firearms proficiency rather than other topics that expand officer skills and knowledge. Because in-service training is often handled by individual agencies, far less is known about it.
Instructional methods and practices used in police training and the instructor qualifications should be better assessed and understood.
Field training programs are thought to significantly impact new officers. However, little is known about program delivery and how it impacts officer knowledge and techniques on the job. Further, little is known about how officers are selected to become FTOs or how such selection influences the development of new officers. More research is needed to understand these programs and to guide future policy decisions.
Citations ▸
[1] Reaves, B. (2015). Local Police Departments, 2013: Personnel, Policies, and Practices. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
[2] Burch, A (2012). Sheriffs’ Offices, 2007 – Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics.
[3] Reaves, B. (2015). Local Police Departments, 2013
[4] Burch, A (2012). Sheriffs’ Offices, 2007
[5] Buehler, E. D. (2021). State and Local Law Enforcement Training Academies, 2018 – Statistical Tables. Bureau of Justice Statistics. https://bjs.ojp.gov/sites/g/files/xyckuh236/files/media/document/slleta18st.pdf
[6] Gardiner, C (2017). Policing around the Nation: Education, Philosophy, and Practice. https://www.policinginstitute.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/PF-Report-Policing-Around-the-Nation_10-2017_Final.pdf
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[9] Buehler, E. D. (2021). State and Local Law Enforcement Training Academies, 2018
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[14] Buehler, E. D. (2021). State and Local Law Enforcement Training Academies, 2018
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